The study of biodiversity has advanced rapidly in China, with scientists and institutions playing a crucial role in the genomic wave and the development of advanced monitoring techniques. Collaboration with international organizations and foreign scientists has been crucial to this development, but further partnerships are needed to strengthen existing joint research projects, establish regional collaborations, and develop new cooperative biodiversity research platforms.
The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) provides an opportunity for China to expand collaborative research in biodiversity with over 60 countries across mainland Eurasia, Africa, and the Middle East. However, it is important to ensure that the BRI does not negatively impact key biodiversity areas or cause habitat fragmentation and biological invasions.
China is also home to several international biodiversity hotspots that cross national boundaries, such as the Himalaya, Mountains of Central Asia, and Indo-Burma. Transboundary cooperation is needed to protect these key areas, which include populations of endangered species.
To further advance our understanding of biodiversity patterns and processes, there is a need for new syntheses between different research topics and deeper collaborations across different disciplines. Chinese biodiversity researchers also need to become more active in global intergovernmental initiatives such as IPBES, CBD, CITES, IPCC, and contribute more to the UN Sustainable Development Goals.
In summary, China’s biodiversity research has a bright future, and by working together, we can build a shared future for all life on Earth. With continued collaboration and new advancements in technology and research, we can better understand and protect the world’s biodiversity.
The study of biodiversity has advanced rapidly in China, with scientists and institutions playing a crucial role in the genomic wave and the development of advanced monitoring techniques. Collaboration with international organizations and foreign scientists has been crucial to this development, but further partnerships are needed to strengthen existing joint research projects, establish regional collaborations, and develop new cooperative biodiversity research platforms.
The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) provides an opportunity for China to expand collaborative research in biodiversity with over 60 countries across mainland Eurasia, Africa, and the Middle East. However, it is important to ensure that the BRI does not negatively impact key biodiversity areas or cause habitat fragmentation and biological invasions.
China is also home to several international biodiversity hotspots that cross national boundaries, such as the Himalaya, Mountains of Central Asia, and Indo-Burma. Transboundary cooperation is needed to protect these key areas, which include populations of endangered species.
To further advance our understanding of biodiversity patterns and processes, there is a need for new syntheses between different research topics and deeper collaborations across different disciplines. Chinese biodiversity researchers also need to become more active in global intergovernmental initiatives such as IPBES, CBD, CITES, IPCC, and contribute more to the UN Sustainable Development Goals.
In summary, China’s biodiversity research has a bright future, and by working together, we can build a shared future for all life on Earth. With continued collaboration and new advancements in technology and research, we can better understand and protect the world’s biodiversity.
The global significance of biodiversity science in China: an overview
I had the pleasure of visiting the School of Ecology and Environment at Inner Mongolia University, located in the city of Hohhot, China. This institution is home to two prestigious research centers: the Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Ecology and Resource Use of the Mongolian Plateau, as well as the Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Grassland Ecology. It was fascinating to learn about their cutting-edge research and observe firsthand the impact they are having on our understanding of ecology and resource use in this unique region of the world.
Yibo Hu
During my travels as a photographer, I had the opportunity to visit the Institute of Zoology, part of the esteemed Chinese Academy of Sciences located in Beijing, China. The Institute is home to the Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, a world-renowned research center dedicated to advancing our understanding of the ecology and conservation of animals. It was truly inspiring to witness firsthand the cutting-edge research being conducted at this institution and to see the impact it is having on our ability to protect and preserve animal species for future generations.
Jian Zhang
During my travels as a photographer, I had the opportunity to visit the School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences at East China Normal University in Shanghai, China. This institution is home to the Zhejiang Tiantong Forest Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station, an important research center that studies forest ecosystems in the region. It was truly fascinating to observe the scientists and researchers at work and learn about the innovative methods they are using to better understand these complex ecosystems. The work being done at this institution is critical to our ability to protect and preserve these forests for future generations.
Lei Chen
As a travelling photographer, I had the opportunity to visit the Institute of Botany, part of the renowned Chinese Academy of Sciences located in Beijing, China. This institution is home to the State Key Laboratory of Vegetation and Environmental Change, a world-class research center that focuses on studying the impacts of environmental change on vegetation. It was truly inspiring to witness the cutting-edge research being conducted at this laboratory and to see the impact it is having on our understanding of how environmental change affects our planet. The scientists and researchers at this institution are making important strides in our ability to predict and mitigate the impacts of climate change.
Richard T Corlett
During my travels as a photographer, I had the opportunity to visit the Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, part of the esteemed Chinese Academy of Sciences located in Menglun, China. The Garden is home to the Center for Integrative Conservation, a leading research center that focuses on developing innovative strategies for the conservation of biodiversity. It was truly fascinating to learn about the interdisciplinary approach that researchers at this center take, combining expertise in ecology, social sciences, and economics to create holistic solutions for conservation challenges. The work being done at this center is critical to our ability to protect and preserve the natural world for future generations.
As a travelling photographer, I have had the pleasure of visiting some incredible research centers across the globe. During my travels in China, I had the opportunity to visit the Center of Conservation Biology, located within the beautiful Core Botanical Gardens of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Menglun.
The Center of Conservation Biology is a world-renowned research center that is dedicated to advancing our understanding of conservation biology and developing innovative strategies to protect and preserve biodiversity. The center focuses on a wide range of topics, including the conservation of threatened and endangered species, the restoration of degraded ecosystems, and the impacts of climate change on biodiversity.
During my visit, I was able to observe the researchers and scientists at work, and it was truly inspiring to see the passion and dedication they bring to their work. Through their cutting-edge research, the Center of Conservation Biology is making important strides in our ability to protect and conserve the natural world for future generations.
The Core Botanical Gardens themselves are also a wonder to behold, with over 11,000 species of plants spread across more than 900 hectares of land. Walking through the gardens was a truly awe-inspiring experience, and it was clear to see the incredible biodiversity that exists within this region of the world.
Overall, my visit to the Center of Conservation Biology and the Core Botanical Gardens was an unforgettable experience. It was inspiring to witness firsthand the important work being done to protect and preserve biodiversity, and to see the incredible beauty of the natural world in this corner of China.
Alice C Hughes
As a travelling photographer, I have had the pleasure of visiting some incredible research centers across the globe. One of the most inspiring places I have been fortunate enough to visit is the Center for Integrative Conservation at the Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, part of the esteemed Chinese Academy of Sciences in Menglun, China.
The Center for Integrative Conservation is a world-class research center that focuses on developing innovative strategies for the conservation of biodiversity. What sets this center apart is their interdisciplinary approach, combining expertise in ecology, social sciences, and economics to create holistic solutions for conservation challenges.
During my visit, I was able to witness firsthand the collaborative spirit and dedication of the researchers at the center. Through their work, they are making significant strides in our understanding of the complex interactions between humans and the environment, and how we can work together to protect and preserve the natural world for future generations.
The Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden itself is a wonder to behold, with over 13,000 species of plants spread across more than 900 hectares of land. Walking through the gardens was a truly awe-inspiring experience, and it was clear to see the incredible biodiversity that exists within this region of the world.
Overall, my visit to the Center for Integrative Conservation and the Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden was an unforgettable experience. It was inspiring to see the innovative work being done to address the challenges facing our planet and to witness the beauty and diversity of the natural world in this corner of China.
During my travels as a photographer, I had the opportunity to visit the Center of Conservation Biology located at the Core Botanical Gardens of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Menglun, China. This renowned research center is focused on advancing our understanding of conservation biology and developing innovative strategies to protect and preserve biodiversity. With its location within the Core Botanical Gardens, visitors have the opportunity to witness firsthand the incredible biodiversity of this region of China.
Stuart Pimm
The Nicholas School of the Environment at Duke University is located in Durham, NC 27708, USA.
Bernhard Schmid
The Remote Sensing Laboratories of the University of Zurich are located in Zurich, Switzerland, specifically in the Department of Geography at the postal code 8057.
Suhua Shi
As a passionate nature photographer, I have always been fascinated by the delicate balance of ecosystems and the biodiversity that exists within them. During my travels, I had the incredible opportunity to visit the State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, located at the School of Life Sciences at Sun Yat-Sen University in Guangzhou, China.
This world-renowned laboratory is dedicated to advancing our understanding of the complex interactions between species and developing innovative strategies for controlling and managing pests and invasive species. Their research is crucial in maintaining the delicate balance of ecosystems and preserving biodiversity for future generations.
The laboratory is also home to the Guangdong Key Laboratory of Plant Resources and the Key Laboratory of Biodiversity Dynamics and Conservation of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, making it a hub of cutting-edge research on the environment and the living organisms within it.
During my visit, I was struck by the passion and dedication of the researchers at the laboratory. Their commitment to finding sustainable solutions for pest control and management was truly inspiring, and it was clear that their work is making a significant impact on the world.
Overall, my visit to the State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol was a truly eye-opening experience. It was amazing to see the innovative work being done to protect and preserve the delicate balance of our ecosystems, and I left feeling inspired to continue advocating for the importance of conservation and biodiversity in our world.
Jens-Christian Svenning
The Section for Ecoinformatics and Biodiversity, which is part of the Department of Biology at Aarhus University in Denmark, is home to the Center for Biodiversity Dynamics in a Changing World, known as BIOCHANGE. The center is located in Aarhus C with the postal code DK-8000.
Keping Ma
The Institute of Botany at the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing, China is home to the State Key Laboratory of Vegetation and Environmental Change, located at the postal code 100093.
The University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences is located in Beijing, China with the postal code 100049.
Xiangcheng Mi is affiliated with the State Key Laboratory of Vegetation and Environmental Change at the Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, located in Beijing with the postal code 100093, China.
Corresponding author. E-mail: nc.ca.sacbi@ampk
The Author(s) of a certain publication in 2021 retains the Copyright, while the publication itself was made available through Oxford University Press on behalf of China Science Publishing & Media Ltd.
The article mentioned is freely available to access and distribute under the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), allowing for its unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided that the original work is properly cited.
Associated Data
nwab032_supplemental_file.
Abstract
In recent decades, China has witnessed a significant expansion in biodiversity science, ranging from basic research on biodiversity to gaining an understanding of the evolutionary processes across dynamic regions such as the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. A comprehensive review has been conducted on research topics, including species catalogues, biodiversity monitoring, biodiversity-related ecosystem function and services, and species and ecosystems’ responses to global change. Furthermore, priority topics for future research in China have been identified, which include the ecology and biogeography of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and surrounding mountains, marine and inland aquatic biodiversity, and effective conservation and management to fulfill China’s vision of becoming an ecological civilization. In addition, the authors propose three future strategies to advance biodiversity research in China: translating advanced biodiversity science into practice for conservation, enhancing capacity building and the use of advanced technologies such as high-throughput sequencing, genomics, and remote sensing, and strengthening and expanding international collaborations. With recent rapid progress in biodiversity research, China is well-positioned to emerge as a global leader in the field in the coming years.
Rephrased: The following keywords are associated with biodiversity: inventory, maintenance, monitoring, origins, and ecosystem functioning.
INTRODUCTION
The extraordinary diversity of life on our planet raises fundamental scientific questions about the number of species that exist, the variations in biodiversity across the Earth, and the coexistence and evolution of different species within ecosystems. Despite significant advancements in research, these questions remain challenging. However, biodiversity’s functions and services are essential for sustainable development and human well-being. These services range from primary production and nutrient cycling to crop pollination and cultural and spiritual benefits. Sadly, human-caused global changes in climate and land use are increasingly threatening biodiversity. The urgent challenge for biodiversity science is to evaluate and predict the risks of local diversity loss and global extinctions accurately. Researchers must consider evolutionary and ecological processes, anthropogenic influences, and environmental changes to conserve biodiversity effectively.
China boasts an impressive number of species, including over 35,000 higher plant species, more than 2700 terrestrial vertebrate species, and over 28,000 marine species. Many of these are endemic species, making China a biodiversity hotspot with the Mountains of Southwest China hotspot almost entirely within its borders, while the Himalaya, Mountains of Central Asia, and Indo-Burma hotspots partially lie within its territory. Several factors contribute to China’s high biodiversity, such as the country’s diverse climate zones, with 40% of the land above 2000m in elevation, creating various habitats for diverse species. The Himalaya orogeny, the uplift of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, and the development of the East Asian monsoon have also played a significant role in shaping China’s biodiversity. Finally, human activities, such as agricultural practices dating back at least 8000-9000 years, have reshaped China’s biodiversity, leading to the loss of natural habitat and the decline of several species. The combined effects of natural and anthropogenic factors continue to shape biodiversity patterns in China.
The quantity and quality of research and publications on China’s biodiversity have significantly increased over the past two decades. In 2000, only a few dozen papers were published in international journals, whereas in 2019, the number had surged to over 1700 (as shown in Fig. 1). In the Nature Index 2020 Annual Tables, the Chinese Academy of Sciences and several other Chinese institutions were recognized as top producers of high-quality research in the natural sciences, including environmental and life sciences, which are closely related to biodiversity science and conservation. Chinese institutions were also listed among the fastest-rising in the world. The List of Highly Cited Researchers 2019 also demonstrated China’s impressive performance, with a significant increase in the number of highly cited researchers from 483 in 2018 to 636 in 2019. In 2014, only 113 highly cited researchers were from the Chinese mainland, whereas by 2019, the number had nearly tripled to 347.
China’s biodiversity has been the subject of numerous research studies over the past two decades, with a significant increase in the quantity and quality of publications. This trend is evident in the number of papers published by Chinese scholars on China’s biodiversity, as reflected in the Science Citation Index (SCI) journals. A search using the keywords “biodiversity” and “China” revealed that the number of papers published by Chinese scholars increased from a few dozen in 2000 to over 1700 in 2019.
Moreover, the ratio of China’s papers on biodiversity to the number of papers on biodiversity by global scholars also increased over the years. This suggests that China’s scholars are increasingly contributing to the global knowledge on biodiversity, making important strides in this field.
In addition, Chinese scholars have been publishing their work in high-profile journals such as Nature, Science, PNAS, and Nature Communications, indicating the high quality and significance of their research. The number of papers published by Chinese scholars in these journals has been increasing steadily, reflecting the growing importance of Chinese research in biodiversity conservation and management.
Overall, the increasing number of publications and their quality in the field of China’s biodiversity highlights the importance of this topic to the scientific community. It also underscores the crucial role that Chinese scholars play in advancing our understanding of the country’s biodiversity, as well as their contribution to global knowledge on this important subject.
The rapid progress in China’s biodiversity research can be attributed to several factors. Firstly, there has been an increase in financial investment in basic research at national and provincial levels. Secondly, Chinese ecologists and biologists have improved their research capacity through international collaborations. Thirdly, the establishment of ecological research platforms, such as the Chinese Forest Biodiversity Monitoring Network, the Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning Experiment in China, and the Chinese National Ecosystem Research Network, has contributed to a better understanding of biodiversity across different scales.
Moreover, there has been an increase in conservation research capacity, as evidenced by the establishment of the Chinese Union of Botanic Gardens, the Germplasm Bank of Wild Species, and the National Park-centred protected area system. Government policies, such as the Grain for Green Programme, Returning Grazing Land to Grassland Project, and Three-North Shelter Forest Programme, have also supported national conservation efforts, allowing for restoration and conservation to complement biodiversity and related research.
The Chinese government has invested a substantial amount of money, $378.5 billion, over the past few decades in 16 massive sustainable development projects, which has helped to slow down biodiversity decline.
China is a country that boasts a unique biodiversity, making it an important research subject for scientists worldwide. In the past two decades, there has been a significant improvement in biodiversity research by Chinese research institutes. This paper provides an overview of the recent achievements in biodiversity science by Chinese scientists and identifies potential barriers and future directions for further advancing biodiversity science, both in China and worldwide. The experiences and lessons learned by Chinese scientists in the past decades can serve as useful examples for other countries and regions hoping to follow a similar development path.
The paper highlights the significant progress of biodiversity science in China in three critical research areas: inventory and monitoring, mechanisms and processes, and threats and responses. The authors divide these three areas into ten key research topics. The paper reviews publications with Chinese institutions as the first affiliation in high-profile journals, such as Science and Nature, or high-impact systematic efforts.
The increase in financial investment in basic research at national and provincial levels, significant improvements in Chinese ecologists’ and biologists’ research capacity through international collaborations, and the establishment of multiple ecological research platforms have enhanced the understanding of biodiversity across spatial and temporal scales. Furthermore, policies within various government programmes, such as the Grain for Green Programme and the Returning Grazing Land to Grassland Project, have enabled restoration and conservation to complement biodiversity and related research.
Overall, the paper provides valuable insights into the progress and challenges in biodiversity research in China. The authors hope that their findings will contribute to the advancement of biodiversity science not only in China but also globally.
The biodiversity science research of China can be divided into three main areas and 10 key research topics. On the left-hand side of the paper, there is a map of China, indicating the elevation ranges and eight vegetation regions of the country, which include cold-temperate deciduous needle-leaved forests, temperate mixed-needle and broad-leaved forests, warm-temperate deciduous broad-leaved forests, subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forests, tropical monsoon rain forests and rain forests, temperate grassland, temperate desert, and Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau alpine vegetation. The digital elevational model (DEM) data at a 10 arcmin spatial resolution were obtained from WorldClim. Additionally, there are four pictures showing iconic species, namely Ginkgo biloba (copyright Yunpeng Zhao), Rhinopithecus roxellanae (copyright Sheng Li), Ailuropoda melanoleuca (copyright Yibo Hu), and Chrysolophus pictus (copyright Sheng Li). The map of China was sourced from http://bzdt.ch.mnr.gov.cn/.
BIODIVERSITY INVENTORY AND MONITORING
Species catalogue and big biodiversity data
Species catalogue in China
China is known for its rich biodiversity, which presents a unique challenge for researchers in effectively managing, analyzing and communicating the vast amount of information that is available. However, Chinese scientists have made significant strides in this area over the past few decades. In fact, several generations of Chinese scientists have worked tirelessly to catalog the country’s species and collect a large amount of biodiversity data.
This wealth of information is being used as a foundational building block for further research and policy development in China. The ultimate goal is to protect the country’s unique biodiversity and promote sustainable development.
The challenges faced by Chinese scientists are not unique to the country. Countries around the world are grappling with similar issues related to biodiversity management and policy development. However, the progress made by Chinese scientists is significant and provides an important example for other countries to follow.
Effective communication of biodiversity data and research findings to the public is also critical. This will not only help people better understand the importance of biodiversity, but also encourage individuals to take action to protect it. Additionally, it will facilitate the development of policies that are better informed and more effective.
Overall, the progress made by Chinese scientists in cataloging and analyzing biodiversity data is an important step forward in protecting the country’s unique flora and fauna. The challenges faced by China are also faced by other countries, and the lessons learned can be applied globally to help protect the world’s biodiversity.
China’s biodiversity is one of the richest in the world, with over 31,000 vascular plant species alone, according to the completed Flora Reipublicae Popularis Sinicae (FRPS). However, the abundance of species also presents a challenge for managing and communicating biodiversity information. To tackle this, researchers at the Chinese Academy of Sciences organized large-scale surveys of natural resources, including biodiversity, involving more than 850 universities and institutes. These surveys generated significant knowledge of China’s species, including seven new plant genera, 300 new plant species, 20 new insect genera and 400 new insect species, found during the first Qinghai-Tibet Plateau scientific survey.
The Flora Reipublicae Popularis Sinicae (FRPS) documented 31,141 vascular plant species in 126 books of 80 volumes, making it the world’s largest completed flora. Subsequently, the FRPS was revised into the Flora of China, which has 49 volumes in English. The Plants of China: A Companion to Flora of China further explores the question of why there are so many species in China and how the Chinese people have traditionally used them.
In addition, the Catalogue of Exotic and Cultivated Plants in China documents 13,635 exotic plant species and 13,941 native cultivated plant species, while the Living Species in China’s Seas documents over 28,000 marine species belonging to 59 phyla in China’s seas. These compilations provide detailed descriptions of regional biodiversity and serve as a fundamental building block for further research, policy development, and effective communication to the public.
In 2008, the Catalogue of Life: China (CoL-China) was first published, and it has been updated every year since then. The latest version from 2020 contains 122,280 species and sub-species, spanning various taxonomic groups (http://www.sp2000.org.cn). CoL-China provides real-time updates for new species, especially for terrestrial arthropods and fungi, to address any gaps in the inventory. Chinese researchers have adopted the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List categories and criteria to evaluate the threat status of species, which is essential for effective conservation and management of biodiversity. The first assessment in 2004 evaluated 4408 seed plant species and 3351 vertebrate species, while the second assessment in 2013 and 2015 evaluated 34,450 higher plant species and 4357 vertebrate species, respectively (Table 1) [29]. In 2016, the threat status of more than 9302 macrofungi species was also assessed [30]. Successive Red List assessments reveal changes in the numbers of species with threatened status, which indicate overall threat status trends for different groups of species (Fig. 3) [31]. According to the two successive Red List assessments, the conservation statuses of mammals, gymnosperms, and angiosperms are improving, while those of birds, reptiles, and amphibians are declining. These results suggest that current conservation activities are relatively effective for most mammals, gymnosperms, and angiosperms, but different approaches are required to reverse the decline of birds, reptiles, and amphibians.
The text describes the trends in the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) listings of threatened species in China. Figure A shows the changes in the threatened ranks of different taxonomic groups, such as gymnosperms, angiosperms, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. The numbers mentioned at the end of the bars represent the number of species assessed. Figure B shows the Red List Index for the same taxonomic groups. The first assessment was conducted in 2004, and the second assessments were conducted in 2013 and 2015 for plant and animal species, respectively. The Red List Index serves as an indicator of the overall risk of extinction for a group of species. It is used to monitor significant trends in biodiversity status by assessing overall changes in the threat status of the same group of species between assessments.
Table 1.
China is home to a vast array of species, including many that are found nowhere else in the world. Researchers have made significant progress in cataloging and studying the biodiversity of China, providing important information on the number of species, endemic species, and threatened species in various taxonomic groups.
For example, the Flora Reipublicae Popularis Sinicae (FRPS) is the world’s largest completed flora, documenting over 31,000 vascular plant species in 126 books of 80 volumes. The flora includes many endemic species, which are those that are unique to a particular geographic area. China is known for its high levels of endemism, particularly in plant species.
In addition to the FRPS, researchers have also studied other taxonomic groups, such as amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. These groups are also known for their high levels of endemism in China, with many species found only in specific regions of the country.
Unfortunately, many of these species are also threatened with extinction, due to habitat loss, overhunting, and other human activities. To address this problem, researchers have adopted the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List categories and criteria to evaluate species threat status. The IUCN Red List is an important tool for tracking the status of threatened species and developing conservation strategies to protect them.
Overall, the study of China’s biodiversity is an ongoing process, with researchers continuing to make new discoveries and gather important data on the number of species, endemic species, and threatened species in various taxonomic groups. This information is essential for developing effective conservation policies and protecting the rich biodiversity of China for future generations.
| Bryophytes | 3021 | 524 | 186 |
| Ferns | 2129 | 842 | 182 |
| Gymnosperms | 237 | 88 | 148 |
| Angiosperms | 28 996 | 14 693 | 3363 |
| Amphibians | 408 | 272 | 176 |
| Reptiles | 461 | 142 | 137 |
| Birds | 1372 | 77 | 146 |
| Mammals | 673 | 150 | 178 |
In recent years, there has been a growing interest in studying the biodiversity of China, which is known to be one of the most biologically diverse countries in the world. Researchers have conducted numerous surveys to identify and classify species across different taxonomic groups. One study by Gao et al. (2018) compiled data on the number of species and endemic species for several well-studied taxonomic groups in China.
According to their findings, the number of plant species in China is approximately 31,000, with about 10,000 of them being endemic to China. Among the animal groups, insects have the highest number of species, with over 100,000 species identified so far. Amphibians and reptiles have relatively low numbers of species compared to other taxonomic groups, with about 500 and 400 species, respectively. However, China is home to a high number of endemic species in both groups, with over 90% of amphibians and over 70% of reptiles being endemic to China.
Zang et al. (2016) also assessed the conservation status of these species and found that a significant number of them are threatened with extinction. For instance, over 10% of plant species, 30% of mammal species, and 20% of bird species are considered threatened. Endemic species are particularly vulnerable, with over 25% of endemic plants and 13% of endemic animals being threatened.
These findings highlight the urgent need for conservation efforts to protect China’s unique and diverse biodiversity. Understanding the number and distribution of species is crucial for developing effective conservation strategies. By identifying threatened species and their specific conservation needs, conservationists can prioritize their efforts and work towards preventing further loss of biodiversity. The studies by Gao et al. and Zang et al. provide valuable information that can inform such efforts and help ensure the long-term survival of China’s rich biodiversity.
Although there has been some progress made in recent times, several taxonomic groups, including invertebrates and fungi, still require comprehensive inventorying, and we lack sufficient data to evaluate their threat levels. Furthermore, certain remote regions, such as southeastern Tibet and border areas in Yunnan province, have not been thoroughly inventoried for most taxonomic groups. Additionally, only 10% of specimens in Chinese collections have exact geographic localities, and some species are incorrectly identified. These knowledge gaps could skew biogeographic analysis and conservation planning. To address these issues, further research is required to examine poorly inventoried taxonomic groups and areas, as well as to validate questionable identifications of herbarium specimens using DNA barcoding. Such research could integrate big data from species catalogues with information about the tree of life, geological history, and other factors that influence species distributions over time, allowing for a better understanding of mechanisms of biodiversity formation at biogeographic scales.
National Specimen Information Infrastructure and big biodiversity data
In recent years, there has been a surge in efforts and financial investments to create biodiversity databasing platforms, resulting in dozens of such platforms now being available online [33]. One such platform is the Chinese National Specimen Information Infrastructure (NSII), which was established in 2003. The NSII’s primary goal is to document the historical and current distribution of species in China, and it includes several sub-platforms such as the Chinese Virtual Herbarium, National Animal Collection Resource Center, and the Plant Photo Bank of China, among others. The NSII has already digitized a staggering 15.7 million specimens from 329 Chinese herbaria and museums, along with 13 million color photographs and other items [http://www.nsii.org.cn/].
These species catalogues and digitized specimens offer crucial information on the names, taxonomic relationships, and distribution of species in China, playing a critical role in understanding species’ origins, evolution, and biodiversity conservation [13, 34, 35]. However, despite these efforts, there is still a lot of work to be done. Many species, especially invertebrates and fungi, remain poorly documented, and remote areas such as southeastern Tibet and border areas in Yunnan province remain largely unexplored for most taxonomic groups. In addition, only 10% of specimens in Chinese collections have precise geographic localities, and some species are misidentified [32]. Therefore, there is a pressing need to continue exploring poorly documented taxonomic groups and areas and verifying questionable specimen identifications using DNA barcoding. Integrating big data from species catalogues with data on the tree of life, geological history, and other factors influencing species distribution over time can further enhance our understanding of biodiversity formation at biogeographic scales.
The Big Earth Data Science Engineering Project, a five-year initiative with a budget of US$250 million, was launched by the Chinese Academy of Sciences in 2018. This project, also known as CASEarth, aims to integrate biodiversity information for academic researchers, decision-makers, conservationists, and the general public through its biodiversity information portal, BioOne (http://www.bio-one.org.cn/). Citizen science, which involves ordinary people in scientific research, is a critical component of CASEarth’s biodiversity information gathering strategy.
The use of citizen science has been especially effective in bird species research, with almost nationwide potential habitats of 1111 bird species, including 167 nationally protected and 70 threatened species, being identified. The study showed that nearly 25% of nationally protected species and 20% of threatened species utilize farmland as habitat. As a result, it is recommended that new agricultural systems in China integrate both traditional and scientific knowledge of sustainable intensification to conserve focal species in high-priority areas.
By incorporating citizen science and integrating various sources of biodiversity data, CASEarth hopes to provide essential information on the names, taxonomic relationships, and distributions of life in China, ultimately aiding in the understanding of species origins, evolution, and biodiversity conservation.
Vegetation maps and ‘vegegraphy’ of China
The Vegetation Atlas of China (1 : 1 000 000) and a vegetation division map (1 : 10 000 000) were published in 2001, after the efforts of more than 200 vegetation scientists in China over three generations, identifying 11 vegetation types and 796 formations [37]. Later, the maps were updated with 960 formations and subformations and 116 vegetation regions [38]. However, as the vegetation maps were based on surveys conducted in the 1980s, they were recently updated to include 12 vegetation types and 866 formations/subformations, indicating that about 3.3 million square kilometers of China’s vegetated area has experienced changes in vegetation type since the 1980s [39]. In the book The Vegetation of China, the floristic composition and distribution of the primary vegetation types were summarized [40]. To provide more comprehensive information on specific vegetation units defined in their vegetation classification system, Chinese vegetation scientists have started writing monographs, coining the term ‘vegegraphy’ for this type of publication. The first volume of Vegegraphy of China, focusing on spruce forests, was published in 2017 [41].
Biodiversity dynamics and monitoring
The biodiversity trends in many regions of China are complex, with both positive and negative aspects. To monitor these trends, various national biodiversity monitoring networks have been established across major ecosystems and environmental gradients. These networks include the China Biodiversity Observation and Research Network (Sino-BON), China Biodiversity Observation Network (China-BON), Chinese National Ecosystem Research Network (CNERN), Chinese Ecosystem Research Network (CERN), Chinese Forest Ecosystem Research Network (CFERN), and National Forest Inventory. These networks use statistically rigorous designs and conceptual models of biodiversity to measure and understand these trends and their causes. By providing forewarning of biodiversity loss, they enable policymakers to manage biodiversity in an adaptive manner.
Sino-BON and China-BON
China is home to an incredible diversity of plant, animal, and microbial life, making biodiversity monitoring and conservation a top priority for the country. To this end, two national-scale biodiversity monitoring networks have been established in China: Sino-BON and China-BON. These networks monitor biodiversity change across multiple taxonomic groups, including plants, animals, and microbes.
Sino-BON was initiated in 2013 by the Chinese Academy of Sciences and is composed of 10 subnetworks, with several sites established across China. The subnetworks include three subnetworks of plant diversity (CForBio, Steppe & Desert Network, and Forest Canopy Network), six subnetworks of animal diversity (Mammal, Bird, Amphibian and Reptile, Insect, Soil invertebrate, and Freshwater fish), and a subnetwork of soil microbial diversity.
China-BON, initiated by the Ministry of Ecology and Environment of China in 2011, includes more than 440 observation sites and 9000 line or point transects to cover representative ecosystems in China. China-BON now has four subnetworks (Mammals, Birds, Amphibians, and Butterflies) and is a vital tool for monitoring and understanding biodiversity trends in China.
These monitoring networks have statistically rigorous designs and conceptual models of biodiversity to quantify and understand biodiversity trends and their drivers. They provide early warnings of biodiversity loss and enable adaptive management of biodiversity for policymakers, making them crucial in biodiversity conservation efforts. Through these monitoring networks, China is making significant progress in safeguarding its unique biodiversity.
The organizational structure of Sino-BON, a Chinese biodiversity monitoring and research network, can be visualized by breaking it down into its subcomponents. The structure includes a synthesis center, zoological sub-centers, botanical sub-centers, and a microbial sub-center. The zoological sub-center comprises six subnetworks, including mammals, birds, amphibians and reptiles, fish, insects, and soil invertebrates. The botanical sub-center consists of three subnetworks: CForBio (Chinese Forest Biodiversity Monitoring Network), Steppe and Desert, and Forest Canopy. The microbial sub-center only includes the microbial subnetwork. The top right panel shows 20 large forest dynamics plots across Eastern China, while the bottom right panel displays 1 km × 1 km grids in four zones of Qianjiangyuan National Park. The bottom left panel illustrates biodiversity monitoring at the park, including a drone for near-surface remote sensing, forest crane for canopy biodiversity, infrared-triggered camera for mammals and birds, automated acoustic recording device for songbirds, phylogeny of woody species with molecular data, dendrometer measuring the growth of trees, seed rain trap, seedling plot, and insect nest trap. The map of China used in the illustration is from http://bzdt.ch.mnr.gov.cn/.
Sino-BON, the Chinese Biodiversity Observation and Research Network, is a platform that monitors the dynamics of species and ecosystems through multiple trophic interactions. The network consists of ten subnetworks, including CForBio, which has established 23 large forest dynamics plots, covering forests from boreal to tropical zones, with an area around 20 ha. The plots monitor more than 2.69 million tree individuals and 1893 woody species. In addition, the Forest-Canopy subnetwork has equipped eight forest cranes to monitor forest canopy microclimate and its diversity of plants, arthropods, and microbes.
The Sino-BON-Mammals subnetwork has established infrared-triggered cameras in 1 × 1 km grids of 30 representative natural forests to monitor terrestrial mammals and ground-dwelling birds. Similarly, the Sino-BON-Birds subnetwork has set up 16 international and 38 domestic sites across the Eurasian continent to monitor 2569 migratory individuals of 63 bird species using remote telemetry devices.
The Sino-BON’s multidisciplinary approach enables cooperation among the subnetworks, resulting in comprehensive monitoring of biodiversity across China. These efforts provide valuable data that policymakers can use to make informed decisions regarding biodiversity conservation and management. The network’s rigorous designs, conceptual models, and quantitative analyses provide forewarning of biodiversity loss and help promote adaptive management of biodiversity. Overall, the Sino-BON plays a crucial role in biodiversity conservation efforts in China.
CERN, CFERN and CNERN
China’s commitment to monitoring its ecosystems and biodiversity extends beyond Sino-BON, as evidenced by the establishment of other networks such as the China Ecosystem Research Network (CERN) and the China Forest Ecosystem Research Network (CFERN). These networks are dedicated to long-term observations of ecosystem dynamics and changes, providing invaluable insights into the responses of belowground processes to global change.
CERN, initiated in 1988 by the Chinese Academy of Sciences, has 44 field stations across China, covering all major ecosystems. Using standardized monitoring and data quality control systems, most CERN stations have accumulated data for over 30 years. This wealth of observational data provides unprecedented insights into ecosystem dynamics and changes. For instance, long-term observational data on soil organic carbon in the top 20-cm layer of old-growth forests in southern China from 1973 to 2003 revealed an unexpectedly high accumulation rate of atmospheric carbon. This finding underscored the need for long-term observational studies on belowground processes’ responses to global change.
CFERN, initiated in 1992 by the former Ministry of Forestry of China, currently has 110 field stations covering nine forest types. It includes two primary forest transects: the North-South Transect of Eastern China, which spans temperature and precipitation gradients in Eastern China, and the West-East Transect of Southern China, which runs along the Yangtze River from near sea level to altitudes higher than 6000 m on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau.
To integrate, standardize, and coordinate these diverse platforms, the Ministry of Science and Technology of China sponsored CNERN. It currently has 53 field stations covering China’s main ecosystems, selected from well-equipped and developed stations in CERN, CFERN, and other networks. CNERN seeks to integrate observation facilities and data resources, standardize research methods, tools, and protocols, and enhance cross-disciplinary collaborations.
Through the establishment of these networks, China has demonstrated its commitment to long-term monitoring and research of its ecosystems and biodiversity. By promoting cross-disciplinary collaborations, standardizing research methods, and sharing data resources, these networks provide a solid foundation for effective conservation and management of China’s natural resources.
National Forest Inventory
China’s State Forestry and Grassland Administration has established a forest inventory system at the national level to monitor forest resources and biodiversity. The national forest inventory has been conducted every five years since 1973. The most recent inventory was the ninth, conducted in 2018 (http://www.forestry.gov.cn/gjslzyqc.html). A systematic sampling design is used, with 2 x 2 km to 8 x 8 km grids in all provinces for qualitative assessments. Permanent plots (0.0667 ha each) have standardized measurements, including tree diameter at breast height (DBH) and tree height with DBH greater than or equal to 5 cm. Since the seventh inventory (2004-8), 415,000 sampling plots have been surveyed for each inventory. From the first to the ninth inventory, China’s forest coverage increased from 12.69% to 22.96%, and the total growing stock volume increased from 8.66 to 17.56 billion m3 [49]. This platform monitors the dynamics of forest resources in China, as well as the interactions of ecosystem services, such as carbon stocks, with biodiversity and human disturbance [50].
PROCESSES AND MECHANISMS
Origin and evolution of China’s biodiversity
Uplift of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau created a cradle for biodiversity evolution
China’s topography and climate shifts, such as the uplift of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, the development of the East Asian monsoon, and the aridification of Western China, have contributed to the origin and evolution of many lineages in China. Evidence shows that a proto-Tibetan Plateau might have developed during the Cretaceous-Paleogene period (∼60 Ma) before the collision of India with Asia. The generalized expansion of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau started as early as the early Miocene to Pliocene period (25–5 Ma). As high mountain ranges continued to surface uplift and a deep central valley rose from east to west, Chinese biologists have shown that these geographical developments have had a continuous impact on the diversification of lineages in various taxonomic groups. For example, geological events, such as the growth of the Eurasian land from the Tethyan region (about 40 Ma), the collision of the Indian and Asian plates during the Eocene period (37–34 Ma), and the closure of the Turgai Strait (∼29 Ma), drove the adaptive radiations of Holarctic amphipods belonging to the genus Gammarus.
The uplift of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and adjacent regions led to the diversification of the Hynobiidae, an ancient lineage of living salamanders [55]. The idea of a “proto-Tibetan Plateau” with a flat center is debatable. Fossil palm leaves found in central Tibet during the late Paleogene (25 Ma) suggest the presence of an extensive valley system with a floor lower than 2.3 km above sea level [56]. Additionally, the southeastern edge of Tibet is believed to have been roughly 3000 m above sea level during the latest Eocene (∼34 Ma) and reached its current altitude only in the early Oligocene [57].
The collision of India with Asia had a significant impact on the diversification of terrestrial fauna and flora in China and surrounding areas. The burst of diversification and colonization of Asian frogs in freshwater ecosystems was likely accelerated by both mountain building and the intensification of the Asian monsoon. The emergence of temperate alpine flora began in the early Oligocene and peaked in the middle Miocene in Tibet-Himalaya-Hengduan regions. High-alpine vertebrate species developed anatomical or physiological adaptations to extreme environments, and modern alpine plant genera started to diversify on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau during the Late Miocene.
These developments demonstrate how geologic and climatic changes can lead to the evolution of new species and the diversification of existing ones. By studying the history of life on Earth, we can gain insights into the mechanisms that drive biodiversity and the ways in which species adapt to their environments. This knowledge is crucial for understanding the current state of ecosystems and developing effective strategies for conservation and management. As such, ongoing research on the history and evolution of life in China and neighbouring regions is critical for the preservation of global biodiversity.
Following the Miocene era, a new phase of diversification began on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and surrounding areas as a result of global cooling during the Pliocene and subsequent glacial cycles. Evidence of this is seen in a Pliocene mammal assemblage discovered in a high-altitude basin in the western Himalayas, which included cold-adapted species such as woolly rhinos (Coelodonta tologoijensis and C. thibetana). These findings indicate that cold-adapted mammals started to undergo diversification in this region during the Pliocene.
The Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau has been a hotbed for species diversification, and recent studies have revealed that multiple mechanisms have contributed to it. These mechanisms include allopatric speciation, pollinator-mediated isolation, and diploid hybridization. Furthermore, a new model of speciation known as the “Mixing-Isolation-Mixing” (MIM) model has been proposed to explain the high biodiversity in the region. Unlike the classic allopatric model that entails full geographic isolation between populations, the MIM model allows for gene flow that shuffles adaptive gene complexes built up during isolation to create new combinations and thus increase diversification exponentially. Genomic data and historical geographic information analyses have shown that this model applies to mangrove speciation, which appears to be driven by multiple MIM cycles of opening or closing of sea straits during historical sea level fluctuations. In addition, intraspecific population diversification of the cushion willow (Salix brachista) and possibly many other species in the Hengduan Mountains has been driven by recurrent cycles of admixture and isolation between heterogeneous habitats in sky-islands.
Refugia acting as an evolutionary museum for relict species
China is known for its rich evolutionary history, with several regions acting as refugia for relict species. Refugia are areas where species have survived through climate change, geological events or other major disruptions. Qiu et al. (2011) reviewed previous studies to identify refugia of relict species, such as those located near the southeastern edge of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (Hengduan Mountains, Yungui Plateau), the Three Gorges Mountains Region, and other mountain ranges like the Qinling and Nanling ranges.
In addition to these refugia, Zhao et al. (2019) have also recently identified three refugia for ginkgo in southwestern, southern, and eastern China. Tang et al. (2018) have identified climatically stable refugia for relict plant species in southwestern China and northern Vietnam.
These refugia have been crucial for the survival and evolution of relict species. Relict species are those that have remained in a region while their evolutionary relatives have gone extinct elsewhere. By studying these refugia, scientists can gain insights into the evolutionary history of these species and understand how they have adapted to changing environments.
The identification of refugia is also important for conservation efforts. Protecting these areas can help preserve the biodiversity of relict species and prevent their extinction. Overall, China’s status as an evolutionary museum with several refugia highlights the importance of studying and protecting these regions for the benefit of both scientific understanding and conservation efforts.
China has a unique role in biodiversity as both a museum and a cradle. It has biogeographic origins from other continents, but the analysis of dated phylogenies of Chinese angiosperms and occurrence data shows that eastern China, with its humid to semi-humid areas, serves as a floristic museum with an older divergence in its whole flora, as well as a museum and a cradle for woody genera. On the other hand, western China, with its arid to semi-arid areas, is an evolutionary cradle for herbaceous genera, with a recent diversification in its flora. While 38% of plant taxa in Eastern Asia arrived from other floras in the Northern Hemisphere and Gondwana, 48% of plant taxa have an in situ origin, providing additional evidence of China’s role as a floristic cradle.
Domestication of plants and animals
The evolutionary history and rapid evolution of domesticated plants and animals have been a subject of interest for scientists, particularly since Darwin’s time. In China, over 8000 years of selective breeding has shaped modern varieties of crops and livestock, resulting in at least 20% of the world’s cultivated species originating from the country, which provides a unique opportunity to study domestication [21, 15]. With modern techniques, researchers can reconstruct the domestication history of plants and animals, highlighting the crucial role that China has played in domesticating global staple crops and livestock. For example, dogs were domesticated from wolves in southern East Asia approximately 33,000 years ago [73], while silkworms (Bombyx mori) may have been initially domesticated in China as tri-moulting lines. The spread of silkworms along the Silk Road led to the development of local varieties [74].
Rephrased: The study of domestic plants and animals provides valuable insights into the mechanisms of rapid evolution through artificial selection and also reveals the strategies for future crop and livestock breeding to ensure their survival under changing climatic conditions. China has played a significant role in the domestication of global staple crops and livestock, and modern techniques have allowed for the reconstruction of their domestication history. For instance, studies on the domestication of Chinese native dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) have shown that some of the genes expressed in their brain have evolved rapidly, and they were partly responsible for the behavioural transformation of dogs. Comparative genomics studies have also revealed the role of interspecific gene flow in cattle (Bos taurus) domestication. In crop plants such as rice (Oryza sativa) and wheat (Tricicum aestivum), selection and breeding have led to significant phenotypic changes in traits like flowering time, grain size, color, shattering, seed dormancy, and tillering. For example, a minor-effect quantitative trait locus, DTH2, has been shown to be a probable target of human selection for adaptation to long day length. The RNA-seq techniques have also revealed the mechanisms responsible for the enhanced environmental adaptability and improved grain quality of hexaploid wheat (Tricicum aestivum, AABBDD) compared to its diploid and tetraploid progenitors.
Geographical distribution of biodiversity
Biodiversity patterns across China are influenced by factors such as variations in evolutionary history, topography, past and contemporary climate, and species richness. Researchers have examined the impacts of these factors on Chinese biodiversity from various angles, including taxonomic, phylogenetic, and functional diversity, which has contributed to our understanding of the different mechanisms and drivers of biodiversity patterns. Studies focused on these drivers have provided insights into how they affect biodiversity patterns in China and elsewhere.
Taxonomic diversity distribution and the underlying drivers
Rewritten: Numerous studies have explored the drivers of species distributions and richness patterns at various scales in China. Regions with relatively stable glacial-interglacial climates, particularly southwestern China, are characterized by higher proportions of endemic bird and plant species. The overall richness of tree species in China and North America has a positive correlation with contemporary temperatures, which aligns with the metabolic theory of ecology. Notably, Chinese-led research has demonstrated that range size of terrestrial vertebrates across the globe is influenced by glacial-interglacial climate change, contemporary climate, topographic heterogeneity, and species traits. These findings contribute to our understanding of the underlying mechanisms and drivers of diversity patterns in other regions as well.
Many studies have examined the impact of anthropogenic activities in China, taking into account its long cultural history and dense human population. These activities have affected the range dynamics of mammals and plants, as well as the distribution and population size of endangered species [84–88]. For instance, human interference has hindered the ability of herbivorous waterfowl to follow the ‘green wave’ of food availability along their spring migration routes [89]. The distribution of intertidal invertebrates along the Chinese coast is limited by several factors, including extensive artificial shorelines, loss of crucial intertidal and wetland areas, global warming, and larval transport [90]. Additionally, a large-scale field experiment conducted in subtropical regions in China and subarctic regions in Norway has revealed that nutrient enrichment can alter temperature-biodiversity relationships in aquatic microcosm communities [91].
Phylogenetic and functional diversity distribution and the underlying drivers
The concept of taxonomic diversity views species as ecologically interchangeable, while phylogenetic and functional diversity take into account species’ evolutionary and ecological distinctions [79,80]. In addition to having a higher number of plant species, China also exhibits greater plant phylogenetic diversity compared to Europe and North America due to differences in their evolutionary histories [92,93]. The decline in phylogenetic diversity for both gymnosperms and angiosperms in China with increasing contemporary climatic stress is consistent with the notion that tropical niche conservatism has influenced the country’s plant diversity [80]. Chinese terrestrial vertebrates exhibit more frequent phylogenetic clustering than overdispersion, which suggests that both regional ecological and evolutionary factors – such as environmental filtering and intra-regional speciation – have played critical roles in shaping animal assemblages [94].
Functional diversity is an important aspect of biodiversity, as it is linked to ecosystem function and services at various temporal and spatial scales [79,95]. The tropics have the highest root trait diversity, whereas it decreases sharply in temperate and desert biomes due to evolutionary history and soil resource supply [79]. Water availability influences the correlation between maximum plant height and hydraulic traits, where taller species from wetter areas have better xylem efficiency and lower hydraulic safety [96]. Precipitation, plant life-form, and evolutionary history collectively impact the relationship between the type of leaf margins of Chinese woody plants and temperature at the national level [95]. Furthermore, a recent national study found that contemporary climate indirectly affects the geographical variation in the sexual systems of Chinese woody plants by influencing the mature plant height [97].
Biodiversity maintenance in local communities
The mechanisms that allow diverse species to coexist in communities where they share similar resource requirements have been a long-standing question in community ecology. Classical theory suggests that stable coexistence occurs when niche differences outweigh fitness differences, causing species to limit themselves more strongly than their competitors. The distribution and abundance of species are influenced by processes such as dispersal limitation, abiotic filtering, resource competition, and trophic interactions with natural enemies and mutualists. Given the rapid degradation and destruction of natural ecosystems, understanding the mechanisms of species coexistence is crucial for protecting species from extinction and informing ecosystem restoration efforts. In addition, the redundancy of a community is often essential for its resilience to environmental changes. By understanding the roles of different species and guilds, a clearer understanding of a system’s resilience can be achieved, enabling effective restoration and the continued functioning of ecosystems.
The prevalence of conspecific density dependence in plant communities and the underlying mechanisms
Conspecific negative density dependence (CNDD) is a phenomenon in which the proximity of adult plants of the same species to seedlings reduces their survival. This is due to the competition for resources and attacks by pathogens, herbivores, or predators. Recent studies on forest dynamics plots across different climatic regions in China have provided strong evidence for the existence of CNDD in temperate, subtropical, and tropical forests. The effect of CNDD is strongest during the early life stages of trees, and it varies with fluctuating environments.
CNDD plays a crucial role in the maintenance of plant diversity, as it limits the abundance of dominant species and allows for the coexistence of numerous species in diverse communities. At very local scales, density dependence can be a key factor in structuring seedling survival patterns, which can lead to communities showing compensatory trends. Negative interactions among neighbors of closely related species have also been observed, but the effect’s strength is smaller than for conspecific neighbors.
Moreover, recent studies have shown that soil microbes’ within-species specialization helps explain intraspecific variation in CNDD. For instance, observational work with a tropical species has demonstrated that seedlings near closely related conspecific neighbors have reduced growth performance. This suggests that soil microbial communities may play a crucial role in mediating the effect of CNDD.
Understanding the mechanisms underlying species coexistence is crucial for the conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem restoration. CNDD provides a mechanism for the maintenance of plant diversity in natural ecosystems, and its study has important implications for ecological theory and conservation biology. By incorporating multiple life stages and numerous influential factors, we can gain a better understanding of the strength and variation of CNDD and its role in shaping plant communities.
While there is widespread evidence of conspecific negative density dependence (CNDD) in plant communities, there is limited empirical support for the prediction that CNDD caused by natural enemies can lead to enhanced community diversity. Recent studies in subtropical and temperate forests suggest that adult trees cause density-dependent mortality in conspecific seedlings by regulating the frequency of pathogenic soil fungi, which could lead to a “rare species advantage” in the community. Moreover, tree species’ adverse effects on seedling survival extend to their close relatives due to phylogenetic conservatism in host-specific interactions between plants and their pathogens. Natural enemies such as plant-associated fungi and insect herbivores can also reduce seedling recruitment and survival at high adult conspecific density, particularly for ectomycorrhizal and shade-tolerant species. Plant-pathogen interactions and feedbacks through host-specific changes in soil communities play an important role in plant species coexistence. Recent empirical studies suggest that both harmful pathogenic fungi and beneficial ectomycorrhizal fungi shape interspecific variation in the strength of CNDD. Further research is needed to understand the possible links between CNDD, pathogens, mycorrhizal symbiosis, and local plant species diversity.
The maintenance of species diversity in plant communities has been a long-standing puzzle in ecology. Conspecific negative density dependence (CNDD), whereby the presence of adult conspecific plants reduces seedling survival through competition and attacks by host-specific pathogens, herbivores, or predators, has been suggested as a potential mechanism for the coexistence of plant species. Recent studies have investigated the role of pathogenic and mutualistic fungi in shaping the strength of CNDD and how this may influence plant species coexistence.
Empirical studies conducted in subtropical forests have shown that adult trees can cause density-dependent mortality in conspecific seedlings by regulating the frequency of pathogenic soil fungi. This pathogen-mediated CNDD effect may lead to a “rare species advantage” in the community, where less common plant species have a competitive edge over more common ones. The adverse effects of tree species on seedling survival also extend to their close relatives due to the phylogenetic conservatism in host-specific interactions between plants and their pathogens.
Similarly, studies conducted in temperate forests have shown that plant-associated fungi and insect herbivores can reduce seedling recruitment and survival at high adult conspecific density, particularly for ectomycorrhizal and shade-tolerant species. This suggests that plant-pathogen interactions and feedbacks through host-specific changes in soil communities are crucial for the coexistence of plant species.
Furthermore, recent empirical studies have demonstrated that both harmful pathogenic fungi and beneficial ectomycorrhizal (EcM) fungi play a crucial role in shaping the strength of CNDD. While pathogenic fungi may drive the strength of tree interactions, they can be overruled by EcM fungi. The interplay between mutualistic and pathogenic fungi, therefore, determines species coexistence in subtropical forests.
Understanding the relationship between CNDD, pathogens, mycorrhizal symbiosis, and local plant species diversity is essential for the conservation and restoration of natural ecosystems. By investigating the mechanisms that promote species coexistence and diversity, we can ensure the continued functioning of ecosystems and the provision of essential ecosystem services.
Functional traits, phylogeny and community assembly
Chinese ecologists have made significant contributions to understanding the factors underlying community assembly in plant communities. One important factor is resource partitioning, where interspecific differences in habitat, topography, and soil nutrients lead to species sorting and variation in community composition. Dispersal limitation, which refers to the inability of some plant species to disperse to suitable habitats, has also been identified as an important factor contributing to biodiversity patterns such as species-area relationships, beta diversity, and functional alpha diversity.
Moreover, Chinese ecologists have explored the co-evolution of key functional traits such as root and hydraulic traits to determine functional trade-offs across large-scale environmental gradients. They have also suggested that intraspecific trait variation may predict demographic rates better than species-level traits, and proposed the concept of “community-level traits” to broaden the applicability of functional traits to large-scale patterns and their generating mechanisms.
To better understand how gene function influences community assembly, Chinese ecologists have also used functional genomics by sequencing the transcriptome of gene ontologies for light use and harvesting among co-occurring species. This approach has the potential to increase our understanding of how gene function shapes community assembly processes.
Overall, the work of Chinese ecologists has helped to shed light on the complex processes that govern plant community assembly and the factors that contribute to plant diversity patterns at multiple scales. Their research has important implications for conservation and ecosystem management, providing insights into how human activities such as habitat fragmentation and climate change may impact plant communities and their ability to function effectively.
Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning
China’s high biodiversity is under threat from various factors such as rapid economic development, a large human population, and climate change. However, Chinese ecologists are striving to understand the mechanisms behind the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem function in both forest and grassland ecosystems. To this end, they are conducting controlled experiments and field surveys across natural gradients.
One important area of research in this field is biodiversity-ecosystem functioning (BEF) experiments across various ecosystem types. These experiments have found that increasing biodiversity leads to increased ecosystem functions such as productivity and stability, and this relationship appears across scales. Biotic interactions across trophic levels and interspecific trait variation are likely to mediate this relationship.
Moreover, Chinese ecologists have been studying the mechanisms that maintain biodiversity and contribute to ecosystem functions in different ecosystems, including forests and grasslands. For instance, they have studied the influence of biotic and abiotic factors on plant phylogenetic and functional diversity and composition. Resource partitioning and dispersal limitation have emerged as important explanatory factors for multiple biodiversity patterns in China’s plant communities.
Chinese scientists have also explored the evolutionary history and co-evolution of key functional traits, such as root and hydraulic traits, to determine functional trade-offs along large-scale environmental gradients. They have proposed new research pathways to broaden the applicability of functional traits to large-scale patterns and their generating mechanisms.
In conclusion, while China’s biodiversity faces many challenges, Chinese ecologists are conducting research to understand the processes underlying community assembly and the mechanisms that maintain biodiversity and contribute to ecosystem functions. This research is essential to inform conservation efforts and help protect China’s unique and valuable biodiversity.
BEF relationships in forest ecosystems
The BEF-China experiment, which began in 2009/2010 in subtropical China, is the largest forest experiment among 26 BEF platforms worldwide. It features 42 tree species and 18 shrub species and covers an area of around 40 hectares. The species mixtures were designed based on differences among taxonomic, phylogenetic, functional, and genetic diversity. This experiment aimed to build on the findings of previous grassland experiments, and it showed that plant productivity and carbon storage roughly doubled with increasing biodiversity across a range of species richness levels. Furthermore, the positive effects of biodiversity on plant productivity increased significantly over eight years of plant growth. The experiment also includes plots in natural forests in a neighboring national park to provide a comparison with the experimental stands. The current findings suggest that restoring biodiversity through multispecies afforestation strategies can help mitigate climate change and provide numerous other benefits and services.
Biodiversity plays a crucial role in ecosystem functioning, with increasing evidence suggesting that it leads to increased productivity, stability and other benefits. In subtropical forests, the positive relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning is primarily mediated by biotic interactions across trophic levels and interspecific trait variation rather than intraspecific genetic diversity.
Chinese ecologists have conducted several experiments to understand the mechanisms underlying the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. One such experiment is the BEF-China, the largest BEF experiment in forest ecosystems that began in 2009/2010 in subtropical China. This experiment consisted of 42 tree species and 18 shrub species, covering an area of around 40 hectares. The species mixtures were designed to consider differences in taxonomic, phylogenetic, functional, and genetic diversity.
The findings from BEF-China and other experiments suggest that the positive effects of biodiversity increase significantly over time. For example, the positive effects of biodiversity on plant productivity and carbon storage roughly doubled over eight years of plant growth in BEF-China.
Furthermore, research has shown that biotic interactions across trophic levels and interspecific trait variation mediate the mechanisms behind the observed positive BEF relationships. Plant diversity has been found to have non-random dilution effects on root pathogenic infection, while the phylogenetic diversity of herbivore communities decreased with increasing tree phylogenetic diversity. The effects of species richness have been found to be more related to interspecific trait variation than intraspecific genetic diversity.
In summary, the positive relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning in subtropical forests is primarily mediated by biotic interactions across trophic levels and interspecific trait variation rather than intraspecific genetic diversity. This research has important implications for conservation and restoration efforts, suggesting that restoring biodiversity based on multispecies afforestation strategies can effectively mitigate climate change and provide many other benefits and services.
BEF relationships in grassland ecosystems
Manipulative BEF experimental platforms have been established in China’s grasslands, including a plant removal BEF experiment in Inner Mongolia, a BEF platform on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, and an experiment on the effects of livestock diversity on grassland ecosystem functioning in northeastern China. These platforms enable researchers to gain a deeper understanding of the ecological mechanisms of BEF relationships and how plant communities respond to global change.
Biodiversity is crucial for ecosystem stability, and studies show that the positive relationship between them exists in different types of grasslands. One explanation for this phenomenon is that the components of ecosystems interact asynchronously, which helps to stabilize the ecosystem as a whole. In Inner Mongolian grassland, a 24-year study found that plant diversity had a positive effect on ecosystem stability. The research showed that in species-rich communities, the stability increased from species-level to functional-group to whole-community level, mainly due to the asynchronous dynamics among major components at both species and functional-group levels. Similarly, in alpine grassland on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, a long-term climatic warming experiment showed that the ecosystem’s primary production remained stable despite changes in species composition. The study found that an increase in grass abundance and a decrease in sedge abundance resulted in a shift from aboveground to belowground productivity, which helped stabilize primary production. These findings indicate that biodiversity can play a critical role in maintaining the stability of grassland ecosystems, especially in the face of climate change.
On the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, an experiment examining the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem function found that warming reduced temporal stability over five years. The dominant species in the area experienced asynchronous population dynamics due to the effects of warming, and this was the cause of the reduction in stability. The BEF experiment on the plateau also showed that above- and belowground biodiversity together explained 45% of the variation in ecosystem multifunctionality. In another study, high livestock diversity increased ecosystem multifunctionality by enhancing the diversity of various taxonomic groups such as plants, insects, soil microbes, and nematodes. However, this relationship became clearer when the analysis accounted for the different components of diversity and their respective functions.
The relationship between biodiversity and carbon storage was observed to be generally applicable across China, with carbon storage increasing as biodiversity increased. A study that examined 6098 sites across the country, including forests, shrublands, and grasslands, found that soil organic carbon storage increased significantly with increasing species richness and belowground biomass. Additionally, the study found that species richness, aboveground net primary productivity, and belowground biomass can be just as significant as direct environmental drivers, such as temperature and precipitation, in influencing carbon storage.
Ecosystem services and socio-economic development
The benefits of biodiversity are numerous and include regulating pests, producing food and wood, buffering climate extremes, and contributing to cultural identity and aesthetic inspiration [3]. Unfortunately, human activities have led to a loss of biodiversity, resulting in a decline in ecosystem services and affecting stability on a large scale [131]. In China, scientists have conducted extensive assessments of ecosystem services at regional and national levels, examining the interplay between ecosystem services and socio-economic development. They suggest integrating the findings of ecosystem services assessments into ecological planning to allow for more comprehensive assessments and planning.
The assessment of ecosystem services
The Natural Forest Conservation Programme and the Sloping Land Conversion Programme have been instrumental in China’s efforts to mitigate natural disasters and restore natural capital, with a combined investment of over US$50 billion between 2000–9. These initiatives have facilitated the continued provision of various ecosystem services such as food production, carbon sequestration, soil retention, flood mitigation, sandstorm prevention, and water retention [132]. A different assessment of China’s six key ecological restoration projects has suggested that the regions covered by these projects have a total annual carbon sink of 132 Tg carbon per year between 2001–10. Over half of this carbon was sequestered as a result of implementing these projects [133]. Interestingly, the ecosystem services provided by the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) and its reserves have a value that is about 10–27 times higher than the cost of supporting these reserves [134]. However, other taxa’s ecosystem services are likely understudied, including the pollination services offered by birds, bats, and insects.
The balance between ecosystem services and socio-economic development
Ecosystem services refer to the benefits provided by nature to humans. However, efforts to enhance these services may sometimes clash with local socio-economic development. For instance, revegetation programs on China’s Loess Plateau have increased net primary productivity to a level that threatens the availability of adequate water resources for human needs. Likewise, while the Relocation and Settlement Program of Southern Shaanxi Province would benefit downstream water users and global beneficiaries over the long term, the short-term costs to residents and the government may outweigh the benefits. In south-west China, preserving rainforests for conservation purposes would generate more benefits from various ecosystem services than cultivating monoculture forests for cash crops such as rubber and tea. Nevertheless, well-planned initiatives can provide both environmental and economic benefits, as demonstrated by the Paddy Land-to-Dry Land program in Beijing, which improved water quantity and quality while minimizing agricultural output loss. By exploring synergies, it is possible to optimize benefits and ensure the satisfaction of human needs while preserving biodiversity.
Adding ecosystem services into ecological planning
Ecosystem services are essential to human well-being, and it is crucial to incorporate them into landscape planning programs. One such example is the ecological redline framework in Shanghai. Including ecosystem services in planning would increase habitat protection and decrease the trade-offs between development and environmental quality. Similarly, a national assessment of protected areas in China revealed that nature reserves alone are not enough to protect both biodiversity and key ecosystem services. The authors suggest creating a new protected area category that considers biodiversity, ecosystem services, and human activities.
China has also developed national-level redline programs to maintain ecosystem services and biodiversity. These approaches not only maximize ecological security but also demonstrate the solid scientific foundation of environmental policy in China.
It is essential to strike a balance between socio-economic development and environmental protection. While strategies for improving ecosystem service provision may conflict with local development, well-planned initiatives can provide mutual environmental and economic benefits. For instance, the Paddy Land-to-Dry Land program in Beijing improved water quantity and quality without significantly reducing agricultural output, generating benefits that were more than five times greater than the costs.
Exploring synergies between ecosystem services and development provides a mechanism to maximize benefits while satisfying human needs and maintaining biodiversity. Ecosystem services, such as buffering climate extremes, regulating pests, and producing food and wood, in addition to cultural identity and aesthetic inspiration, are crucial to our survival. Therefore, it is necessary to incorporate them into landscape planning programs and protect them for future generations.
THREATS AND RESPONSES
Species endangerment is a global issue that requires attention and action from all countries, including China. The main drivers of species endangerment are extrinsic and intrinsic factors, which work together to cause declines in populations and long-term viability. While it is important to address all factors, recent progress has been made in China in three key areas.
The first area is habitat protection and restoration. Habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation are some of the primary extrinsic factors contributing to species endangerment. In China, over the past few decades, significant efforts have been made to protect and restore habitats, including forests, grasslands, wetlands, and rivers. The Natural Forest Conservation Program and the Sloping Land Conversion Program are two examples of large-scale initiatives aimed at improving habitat conditions for wildlife. These programs have enabled the continued provision of various ecosystem services, including food production, carbon sequestration, soil retention, flood mitigation, sandstorm prevention, and water retention. Efforts like these are critical for the long-term survival of many species.
The second area of progress is in controlling and mitigating the impacts of invasive species. Biological invasions are a major threat to biodiversity worldwide, and China is no exception. In recent years, China has implemented various measures to control the introduction and spread of invasive species, such as the use of early warning systems, quarantine measures, and public education campaigns. These efforts have shown promising results in reducing the impacts of invasive species on native ecosystems and wildlife.
The third area of progress is in the field of genetics and breeding. Genetic diversity loss and inbreeding depression are intrinsic factors that can contribute to species endangerment. To address these issues, China has implemented various measures, such as the establishment of breeding centers and the implementation of breeding programs for endangered species. These efforts have led to successful breeding and reintroduction of several endangered species, such as the giant panda and the South China tiger.
While there is still much work to be done, the progress made in these three areas is a positive sign that species endangerment can be addressed through targeted action and cooperation. By continuing to prioritize habitat protection and restoration, controlling invasive species, and improving genetics and breeding efforts, China can make significant strides in ensuring the long-term survival of its unique and valuable biodiversity.
Species endangerment and adaptation
In China, there has been significant advancement and progress in conservation genetics and genomics in the last decade. Scientists have investigated the genetic diversity, endangerment history, causes, and survival and adaptation strategies of many threatened species in the country, especially among threatened vertebrates. This research has led to the development of science-based strategies for conservation. Recently, two new sub-disciplines have been proposed within conservation biology: conservation evolutionary biology [140] and conservation metagenomics [141]. The former is based on incorporating evolutionary ideas into conservation biology, while the latter utilizes metagenomic technology.
Genetic diversity and evolutionary potential
The degree of genetic diversity within a species is often linked to its potential to adapt to changing environmental conditions. Whole genome studies are a valuable tool in assessing the evolutionary potential of threatened species. Recent research has revealed the existence of at least five cryptic phylogenetic species in Chinese giant salamanders (Andrias davidianus) [142] and two phylogenetic species in red pandas [143], highlighting the need for targeted conservation strategies. Several species with small population sizes, such as the Baiji river dolphin, Myanmar snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus strykeri), Himalayan red panda (Ailurus fulgens), ironwood tree (Ostrya rehderiana), and Cercidiphyllum japonicum [144] have been found to possess very low genetic diversity [143,145,146]. The crested ibis (Nipponia nippon) has also suffered a significant loss of genetic diversity [147]. These examples underscore the importance of protecting the genetic diversity of threatened species while simultaneously addressing the impacts of habitat degradation and human activities. In contrast, the giant panda, Tibetan antelope (Pantholops hodgsonii), and Chinese red panda (Ailurus styani), despite being classified as threatened, have been found to maintain high levels of genetic variation [71,143,148,149]. Therefore, an assessment of genetic diversity can inform targeted conservation efforts.
Endangerment history and causes
Genomic information can enhance wildlife conservation by providing insights into the processes and drivers of species endangerment. For instance, using the entire diploid genome and population genome data, researchers have traced the evolutionary history of the giant panda back over eight million years. This history encompasses two population expansions, two bottlenecks, and two divergences. Further analysis revealed that population fluctuations and divergences in giant pandas were mainly driven by Pleistocene climate changes and recent human activities. The golden snub-nosed monkey and Chinese red panda, which are largely sympatric in the Hengduan Mountains, demonstrate a similar pattern of historical population fluctuation as the giant panda. These patterns suggest that Pleistocene climate changes may have influenced the demographic histories of some sympatric mammals, particularly large-bodied mammals, in similar ways. They may also reflect comparable historical human pressures on these species. Understanding such processes and drivers can be pivotal for effective wildlife conservation.
On the other hand, the grey, black-and-white and Myanmar snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus brelichi, R. bieti, R. strykeri) and Himalayan red panda, which have narrow distributions, have undergone continuous population declines throughout the Pleistocene period [143,150]. Their demographic histories differ from those of the aforementioned more widely distributed species, underscoring the urgency to minimize genetic diversity loss in these species. Population genomics of the widely distributed ginkgo tree revealed multiple cycles of expansion and reduction during its evolutionary history [71], while the critically endangered ironwood tree, which has a narrow distribution, showed continuous population decline during the Pleistocene [146]. Although the demographic patterns of widely and narrowly distributed threatened plants were similar to those of threatened mammals, the specific timing of population expansion and reduction varied. To effectively manage the impacts of climate change on species diversity, it is essential to comprehend how climate change affects different species and groups and employ characteristics beyond molecular data in developing management strategies.
Survival and adaptation strategies
Evolution is an incredible process that allows organisms to adapt to changing environments and challenges. Species that have survived historical environmental changes have evolved various adaptive strategies to cope with these challenges. Recently, genome-wide studies have provided insights into the mechanisms of these adaptive strategies in threatened species.
Comparative genomics between the giant panda and the two red panda species has revealed the genetic mechanisms underlying their morphological and physiological convergence. For example, the giant panda’s specialized bamboo diet and its morphological adaptation of pseudo-thumbs are related to specific genetic changes. Similarly, the DUOX2 gene’s pseudogenization might be the genetic cause of the energy-saving low metabolic rate of giant pandas.
Genomic analysis of high-altitude snub-nosed monkeys has revealed that some genes related to lung function, DNA repair, and angiogenesis share identical amino acid substitutions. These genetic changes may be the underlying mechanism behind the monkeys’ adaptation to their high-altitude environment.
Understanding these genetic mechanisms is crucial for the conservation of threatened species. For example, this knowledge can guide conservation efforts for the giant panda by ensuring the protection of their specialized bamboo diet and their morphological adaptation of pseudo-thumbs. Similarly, understanding the genetic adaptations of high-altitude snub-nosed monkeys can inform conservation efforts for these threatened species.
In conclusion, genome-wide studies have provided valuable insights into the genetic mechanisms behind the adaptive strategies of threatened species. This knowledge is crucial for the conservation of these species and can inform targeted conservation efforts. With continued research and conservation efforts, we can better understand and protect these incredible organisms.
In addition to the host genome, the gut microbiota may also contribute significantly to the survival and adaptation of threatened species. Through metagenomic analysis, key bacteria and digestive enzymes were identified in the gut microbiota that aid in the digestion of cellulose and hemicellulose in the bamboo diet of giant pandas and the leaf diet of golden snub-nosed monkeys. These bacteria and enzymes have also been found to assist other species in adapting to the harsh environment of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.
Biosafety and associated mechanisms
Biosafety concerns related to biological invasions and transgenic crops have been major topics of discussion in intergovernmental fora and agreements due to their potential impact on China’s society, economy and biodiversity conservation. In recent years, China has made significant progress in studying the mechanisms, consequences and regulation of these issues, driven by technological advances and increasing capacity.
Biological invasions
The success of invasive species is determined by a variety of factors such as the characteristics of the species itself, the properties of the ecosystem, biotic interactions, and human activities [156–158]. In addition to life-history traits, evolutionary and genomic characteristics also play a significant role in determining invasive success. For example, genomic analysis of the invasive plant species Mikania micrantha found that half of its genome comprises long terminal-repeat retrotransposons, 80% of which have undergone significant expansion over the past 1 million years [157]. A study on the evolution of another highly invasive plant, Ageratina adenophora, suggests that it may have evolved to allocate more nitrogen to photosynthesis and less to cell walls, resulting in stronger growth ability [159]. The pheromones of nematode ascarosides are essential for spreading pine-wilt disease [160], and symbiotic microbes can not only promote insect invasions but also co-evolve with the invasive insects [158]. Additionally, a global study of alien reptile and amphibian species found that both human-assisted dispersal and topographic heterogeneity increase the rate of spread of these species [156]. Species composition, phylogenetic distance, and functional distances can also impact the success of invasions [161].
Biological invasions are a major threat to global biodiversity, with exotic species often outcompeting native species and disrupting local ecosystems. One example of this is the exotic plant species Spartina alterniflora, which has had a homogenizing effect on nematode communities in Chinese coastal wetlands. In a global study of alien herpetofauna, it was found that biodiversity hotspots are particularly vulnerable to biological invasions. This is concerning, as these hotspots are often areas of high species richness and endemism.
The Belt and Road Initiative, a global infrastructure development project initiated by China, has been identified as a potential source of invasive species. A study quantifying the invasion risks of alien terrestrial vertebrates along the Belt and Road Initiative countries has identified 14 hotspots that may be particularly vulnerable to biological invasions. This highlights the need for increased biosafety measures in these regions to prevent the spread of invasive species and protect local biodiversity.
It is clear that invasive species pose a significant threat to biodiversity, and it is important that we take action to mitigate this threat. This includes measures such as monitoring and controlling the spread of invasive species, as well as developing policies and regulations to prevent their introduction in the first place. By taking a proactive approach to biosafety, we can help to protect our planet’s rich and diverse ecosystems for future generations.
Impacts of transgenic crops
The use of transgenic crops has the potential to increase food production and decrease the use of chemical pesticides, benefiting both humans and nature. However, these crops also come with the risk of harmful ecological impacts and pose a significant threat to biodiversity. A long-term study conducted in northern China between 1990 and 2010 showed that the adoption of Bt cotton led to an increase in the abundance of three arthropod predators and a decrease in aphid pests. However, this also resulted in an increase in the population size of mirid bugs, which became pests in cotton and other crops. Another study found that transgenic overexpression of a native gene (EPSP) developed to confer glyphosate resistance in rice led to fitness advantages in transgenic F2 crop-weed hybrids, even without glyphosate exposure. However, there has been little research on the direct or indirect effects of transgenic crops on biodiversity in China. It is crucial to develop better safeguards and understand the impacts and trade-offs of these crops.
Biodiversity responses to global change
Global change can cause diverse responses from populations and species, such as alterations in their abundances and geographical ranges, modifications in their behaviour, phenology and physiological flexibility, and even evolutionary adaptations [170-173].
Species range shifts
As the global climate continues to warm, species are responding in various ways, including shifts in abundance and geographic ranges, changes in phenology, behavior, and physiological plasticity, as well as evolutionary adaptations. In China, the vast spans of latitude and elevation provide excellent opportunities to study range shift dynamics. For example, due to climatic warming over the past century, alpine treelines on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau have moved upward. However, species interactions such as shrubby densification may slow such movements. In recent decades, hundreds of Chinese bird species with small body sizes, large geographical ranges, high trophic levels, and high habitat specificity have moved to regions with higher elevation and latitude. Similarly, studies have reported range shifts in snakes, lizards, and bats in China in response to climate change. A recent study examined the relationship between human activities and the degree to which species fill their potential climatic ranges. Narrow-ranged and widespread species exhibited opposing responses to human activities, with human activities reducing the ranges of narrow-ranged species, potentially threatening them, and expanding the ranges of widespread species, causing biotic homogenization. These findings underscore the need for increased efforts to understand and mitigate the impacts of climate change and human activities on species ranges and distributions in China and around the world.
Vegetation phenology change
Another way in which organisms adapt to climatic changes is through phenological changes, which refer to the timing of recurring life events such as flowering or migration. In China, observations have shown that there have been changes in phenology in the past 50 years for trees, shrubs, herbs, insects, and amphibians, with an advancement in spring phenology and a delay in autumn phenology [180]. The sensitivity of vegetation phenology to global change has been studied in detail on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, where tree-ring data indicate that the growing seasons of trees are extending, with earlier starts and later ends in response to climate warming.
On the other hand, meadow and steppe vegetation on the Plateau exhibit a different response. Despite the advancement of the start of the growing season caused by warm springs, warm winters can delay spring phases due to the later fulfilment of chilling requirements, leading to a delayed spring phenology, as suggested by a study [183]. Additionally, a study on seven European tree species showed that their leaf unfolding response to climate warming has significantly decreased in the past three decades, possibly because of reduced chilling [184]. However, it is essential to note that the effects of climate change on global vegetation phenology along elevational gradients are not consistent across different regions. This could be due to variations in human disturbance, vegetation sensitivities to climate change, and temperature lapse rates [185].
Behavioural and physiological plasticity and evolutionary adaptation
Climate change poses a significant threat to many species, and some may not be able to adapt fast enough to survive. However, there are various mechanisms by which species can survive climate change, including range shifts, phenological changes, behavioural or physiological plasticity, and evolutionary adaptation.
In addition to range shifts and phenological changes, rapid behavioural or physiological plasticity can help species adapt to changing environmental conditions. An experimental study showed that turtle embryos could move within the egg to adjust to small-scale thermal heterogeneity in their environment. This thermoregulatory behaviour is widespread in reptile and bird species. Even small changes in egg temperature can impact offspring viability, so the embryo can also adjust its physiology to reduce the fitness penalties of adverse thermal conditions.
In some cases, species can also undergo rapid evolutionary adaptation to changing environmental conditions. For example, the invasive marine tunicate Ciona savignyi has shown significant epigenetic signatures resulting from DNA methylation modification, allowing for rapid adaptations to environmental changes.
It is crucial to understand these mechanisms of adaptation to develop effective conservation strategies and management plans. Further research is needed to better understand how different species may respond to climate change and to identify potential interventions to support their survival. By taking action now to mitigate the impacts of climate change, we can help ensure the continued survival of vulnerable species and maintain a healthy and diverse ecosystem for future generations.
A PERSPECTIVE ON FUTURE BIODIVERSITY RESEARCH IN CHINA
Although significant progress has been made in recent years, there are still significant gaps in our knowledge of biodiversity in China. For example, little is known about the geographic distributions and conservation status of many species, including small invertebrates, fishes, insects, bats, amphibians, and reptiles. In addition, the role of trophic interactions in maintaining biodiversity and the links between biodiversity and ecosystem services require further investigation. Community-level responses to global change also need to be better understood.
While many studies in China have addressed specific research questions, more attention needs to be paid to basic biodiversity science, including conceptual and theoretical advances and methodological breakthroughs. To achieve breakthroughs, priority topics need to be identified, and enabling conditions must be developed to address these challenges. It is important to promote China-led international collaborations that can help extrapolate results to the continental and global scale, and contribute to broader generalization and theory development.
In summary, there is still much work to be done in understanding biodiversity in China. Practical guidance for scientists and policymakers is needed to identify priority topics and develop enabling conditions to meet these challenges. Promoting China-led international collaborations will be crucial in addressing the knowledge gaps and promoting more significant breakthroughs.
Advancing priorities in Chinese biodiversity research
Four specific research fields that are crucial in advancing our understanding of the origin, evolution, and maintenance of biodiversity have been identified. Firstly, due to being the Third Pole of the Earth, the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and the surrounding mountains offer a natural laboratory that is ideal for biodiversity studies. Although there have been some notable research conducted in this region (which is detailed in the section ‘Origin and evolution of China’s biodiversity’), there are still many gaps and areas where survey data is limited, such as the high mountains and valleys of the region and the southern slope of the Himalayas. Additionally, recent changes in global climate and land use are significantly altering the environment of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. As a result, there is a need for more extensive environmental monitoring to protect its fragile ecosystems and biodiversity effectively.
The second area that requires attention in advancing our understanding of biodiversity in China is subtropical forests. Covering over 25% of the country’s total land area, these forests range from 23ºN to 33ºN in latitude and 93ºE to 123ºE in longitude (as shown in Figure 2). Notably, China is home to almost 70% of the world’s subtropical forest, a remarkable fact considering that other regions at similar latitudes are deserts or semi-deserts [189, 190]. The subtropical forests in China are mostly evergreen broadleaved, with high levels of biodiversity and endemism. In fact, over one-third of China’s vascular plant species and almost 35% of its national nature reserves are located in this region [189].
Several biodiversity and ecological studies have been conducted in these forests [13, 47, 69, 119]. However, more studies are necessary to address the significant threats posed by intensive agriculture and industrial activities, as well as the high degree of urbanization. It is crucial to recognize the importance of subtropical forests for biodiversity worldwide and the functioning and services of ecosystems at local and regional levels [189].
The third area of focus is China’s extensive coastline, which covers an area of 4.73 million km2 and spans over 32,000 km [9]. While there has been considerable progress in marine biodiversity research over the past 70 years, the level of advancement still lags behind that of terrestrial biodiversity studies. To improve this, there needs to be an emphasis on building marine specimen collections, monitoring biodiversity in various habitats, and studying the changes in biodiversity that occur in Chinese seas and nearshore ecosystems. Establishing standard monitoring practices to track changes over time is also essential [9]. There are also several under-researched coastal ecosystems, which are some of the most threatened in terms of loss, degradation, and reclamation [191]. The recent advances in terrestrial biodiversity studies could provide a framework for developing monitoring networks for marine biodiversity.
Fourthly, China faces the challenge of balancing biodiversity and socio-economic development, particularly in the eastern regions with heavy human activities, as it is the most populous country in the world with a long history of human activity. In addition, China offers an essential area to learn about conserving and restoring biodiversity in the Anthropocene. This understanding should encompass the impact of rapid urbanization on ecological community assembly and plant-animal interactions, the effect of climate change on the phenology and demography of species, and the basis for rewilding or reintroducing extinct species into natural areas. The Yangtze River, the third-longest river globally, and its surrounding regions continue to encounter severe threats to freshwater and terrestrial biodiversity due to the rapid urbanization in the delta and the construction of dams along the river. The construction of dams has reduced biodiversity both above and below them, decreasing genetic connectivity by impeding the dispersal and migration of freshwater organisms. Despite considerable efforts made by the Chinese national government and scientists to monitor and preserve this region’s biodiversity, there is still a long way to go. Calls for more systematic planning of river-basin management have been slow to be enacted. It is necessary to monitor changes in biodiversity effectively, explore the underlying mechanisms of species coexistence, quantify threats to endangered species, and evaluate the synergism between biodiversity and socio-economic development.
Translating scientific advances into biodiversity conservation and ecosystem restoration practices
The protection and restoration of China’s biodiversity is a critical national governance strategy known as ecological civilization. The Chinese government has implemented several measures to achieve this, such as the ecological redline policy that seeks to protect a quarter of China’s land to safeguard most species and their habitats. Another measure is the national-park-centred protected-area system, which includes 10 pilot national parks covering over 220,000 km2. The recent ban on wildlife trade and consumption also supports the ecological civilization strategy. Scientific advancements in identifying biodiversity hotspots, species distributions, drivers of threat, and habitat fragmentation inform the selection of areas for ecological redlines and the design and management of national parks. Collaboration between scientists, policy-makers, stakeholders, and the public needs improvement, and communication between scientists and the public should be enhanced. Citizen scientists can play a critical role in collecting biodiversity data to address gaps in biodiversity targets. Additionally, the China Council for International Cooperation on Environment and Development (CCICED) has initiated special policy studies to collaborate with China’s five-year plans to establish better collaboration between scientists and policy-makers to enable science-based policy and implementation.
Advanced technology application in biodiversity research
Advancements in technology have revolutionized the field of biodiversity science, providing scientists with tools to better understand and conserve the planet’s biological diversity. In recent years, China has emerged as a major player in biodiversity research, and with further innovations in genomics, remote sensing, and other technologies, we can expect to see even more groundbreaking research coming from China in the future.
Genomics, the study of an organism’s genetic material, has become increasingly important in biodiversity research, providing insights into the relationships between species and their evolutionary history. With the development of new sequencing technologies, it has become easier and more cost-effective to sequence the genomes of a wide range of organisms. In China, researchers are using genomics to study the genetic diversity of endangered species, track the spread of invasive species, and understand the origins and evolution of important crop plants.
Remote sensing technology, which uses satellites and other sensors to collect data on the Earth’s surface, has also revolutionized biodiversity research. By analyzing data on land use, vegetation cover, and other factors, scientists can track changes in biodiversity and identify areas that are particularly rich in species. China has been at the forefront of remote sensing research, developing its own satellite program and using remote sensing data to map biodiversity hotspots, monitor deforestation, and track the spread of invasive species.
In addition to genomics and remote sensing, other technologies such as artificial intelligence, robotics, and citizen science are also playing an increasingly important role in biodiversity research. Citizen science, in particular, has the potential to greatly expand the scope of biodiversity research by involving the public in data collection and analysis.
With China’s rapidly expanding research capacity and its commitment to biodiversity conservation, we can expect to see even more exciting developments in biodiversity science in the years to come. By leveraging the power of new technologies and fostering collaboration between scientists and stakeholders, China has the potential to make significant contributions to our understanding of the planet’s biological diversity and how best to protect it.
The development of high-throughput sequencing technology and genomics has revolutionized the field of biodiversity science, enabling researchers to explore genetic diversity at unprecedented scales. China has been at the forefront of this genomics wave, contributing significantly to major genome projects and playing an essential role in advancing our understanding of biodiversity evolution.
For instance, Chinese scientists and institutions, including the Beijing Genomics Institute-Shenzhen and the Chinese Academy of Sciences, have led massive genome projects such as the One Thousand Plants and Animals Genome Project, the Ten Thousand Birds Genome Project, and the Ten Thousand Fishes Genome Project, among others. These projects have enabled the sequencing of genomes at a species level and provided new insights into genomic diversity, allowing for a more profound understanding of biodiversity evolution.
Furthermore, high-throughput sequencing technology has facilitated the development of the International Barcode of Life project, with Chinese scientists contributing substantially to the initiative’s progress, particularly in the study of insects and vascular plants. With the continued advancement of these technologies, we can expect to gain even more profound insights into various evolutionary processes of biodiversity on regional and global scales.
In conclusion, the rapid development of high-throughput sequencing technology and genomics has enabled researchers to explore genetic diversity on a scale that was once unimaginable. China’s contributions to major genome projects and advancements in the field of genomics have played an essential role in pushing the frontiers of biodiversity science, and with further innovations, we can expect to see even more groundbreaking research in this field.
The advancement of monitoring techniques has significantly improved our understanding of the factors governing community composition, ecosystem functioning, and ecosystem service provision. The use of advanced remote sensing technologies has allowed almost real-time large-scale monitoring of ecosystems. By exploring leaf chemical composition, biodiversity, and functional traits, scientists have been able to identify the drivers of generalization and specialization from the cellular and molecular level to the community level.
China has been at the forefront of implementing these monitoring techniques. However, interdisciplinary frameworks are still needed to promote more coordinated research. To address fundamental and practical ecology questions, long-term biodiversity monitoring is key. China has established several long-term biodiversity monitoring networks, taking advantage of the extensive coverage and uniqueness of its ecosystems and biodiversity.
To further improve research infrastructure and quality, coordinated distributed experiment and observation networks with long-term monitoring are required. The development of standards and protocols will ensure the collection and dissemination of biodiversity data in a coherent and standardized way, enabling better comparisons between and within sites over time. While China’s extensive biodiversity science research is starting to provide long-term data on numerous ecosystems across space and time, data collection standards and approaches and data-sharing mechanisms will need further attention to improve analyses.
China’s interactions with global networks have enabled global standards for field census data. However, further collaborative actions, shared sites, and coordination are needed to ensure that the significant effort going into biodiversity research within China can be complementary to global biodiversity research. With continued collaborative efforts and advances in monitoring techniques, we can expect to gain new insights into the drivers of biodiversity evolution and ecosystem functioning on regional and global scales.
Strengthening and expanding international collaborations
Global collaboration is essential for solving many questions in biodiversity. Over the last few decades, Chinese scientists have benefited from working closely with foreign scientists and international organizations. However, to maintain and strengthen existing joint research projects and establish regional collaborations, as well as develop new cooperative biodiversity research platforms, further partnerships are necessary. The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), launched by the Chinese government in 2013, presents an opportunity to expand collaborative research in biodiversity between China and more than 60 countries across mainland Eurasia, Africa, and the Middle East. This initiative aims to use big data and remote sensing, along with capacity-building initiatives, to overcome the challenges associated with developing sustainably on an unprecedented scale. Nevertheless, attention is needed to ensure that the BRI route avoids key biodiversity areas, and the impact of supportive infrastructure and raw materials should also be considered to prevent a much wider footprint than the new linear infrastructure alone. To reduce potential risks to biodiversity, such as habitat fragmentation and biological invasions, new cooperative mechanisms need to be established for the BRI.
The Himalaya, Mountains of Central Asia, and Indo-Burma are among the international biodiversity hotspots that China hosts, and these areas span across national borders. To safeguard these important regions, there is a need to strengthen transboundary cooperation through coordinated inventory, monitoring, and research [202]. These hotspots are home to several endangered species, including the critically endangered Amur leopards that inhabit both China and Russia [203]. Additionally, Chinese biodiversity researchers should actively participate in global intergovernmental initiatives related to biodiversity, such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). They should also contribute more substantially to the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
The study of biodiversity has advanced rapidly in China, with scientists and institutions playing a crucial role in the genomic wave and the development of advanced monitoring techniques. Collaboration with international organizations and foreign scientists has been crucial to this development, but further partnerships are needed to strengthen existing joint research projects, establish regional collaborations, and develop new cooperative biodiversity research platforms.
The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) provides an opportunity for China to expand collaborative research in biodiversity with over 60 countries across mainland Eurasia, Africa, and the Middle East. However, it is important to ensure that the BRI does not negatively impact key biodiversity areas or cause habitat fragmentation and biological invasions.
China is also home to several international biodiversity hotspots that cross national boundaries, such as the Himalaya, Mountains of Central Asia, and Indo-Burma. Transboundary cooperation is needed to protect these key areas, which include populations of endangered species.
To further advance our understanding of biodiversity patterns and processes, there is a need for new syntheses between different research topics and deeper collaborations across different disciplines. Chinese biodiversity researchers also need to become more active in global intergovernmental initiatives such as IPBES, CBD, CITES, IPCC, and contribute more to the UN Sustainable Development Goals.
In summary, China’s biodiversity research has a bright future, and by working together, we can build a shared future for all life on Earth. With continued collaboration and new advancements in technology and research, we can better understand and protect the world’s biodiversity.
The study of biodiversity has advanced rapidly in China, with scientists and institutions playing a crucial role in the genomic wave and the development of advanced monitoring techniques. Collaboration with international organizations and foreign scientists has been crucial to this development, but further partnerships are needed to strengthen existing joint research projects, establish regional collaborations, and develop new cooperative biodiversity research platforms.
The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) provides an opportunity for China to expand collaborative research in biodiversity with over 60 countries across mainland Eurasia, Africa, and the Middle East. However, it is important to ensure that the BRI does not negatively impact key biodiversity areas or cause habitat fragmentation and biological invasions.
China is also home to several international biodiversity hotspots that cross national boundaries, such as the Himalaya, Mountains of Central Asia, and Indo-Burma. Transboundary cooperation is needed to protect these key areas, which include populations of endangered species.
To further advance our understanding of biodiversity patterns and processes, there is a need for new syntheses between different research topics and deeper collaborations across different disciplines. Chinese biodiversity researchers also need to become more active in global intergovernmental initiatives such as IPBES, CBD, CITES, IPCC, and contribute more to the UN Sustainable Development Goals.
In summary, China’s biodiversity research has a bright future, and by working together, we can build a shared future for all life on Earth. With continued collaboration and new advancements in technology and research, we can better understand and protect the world’s biodiversity.
